Works Cited

Bibliography

Haskins, James. Black Music in America: A History through Its People. New York: T.Y. Crowell, 1987. Print.

Hodeir, André. Jazz: Its Evolution and Essence. New York: Grove, 1956. Print.

Paul, Brian. "Music of the Romantic Era." Washington State Publications. Washington State University, 17 Dec. 1998. Web. 15 Apr. 2014.

Paul, Brian. "Romanticism." Washington State Publications. Washington State University, 17 Dec. 1998. Web. 15 Apr. 2014.

Schuller, Gunther. Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development. New York: Oxford UP, 1986. Print.

Chord Structure in Jazz and Romantic Era Music

Chord structure, especially on the piano, is essential in determining tone and fullness of musical pieces in jazz. Chords are more than just means to get a chord progression; instead, chord structure is the way the  individual chords themselves are built and played rhythmically. In jazz, a common chord structure is a system of broken chords. Broken chords are a system of combined arpeggios and block chords. Block chords enhance the dynamic quality of jazz piano by building a complex bass-line with the left hand, while the right hand performs the melody or other chords. Broken chords are foundational to the early, upbeat, jazz-piano style known as Stride. Stride was popular in the 1920s and 30s, and it is known as Stride because of the leaps the players' left hand would make in forming broken chords. The purpose of this is to replace a bass player and create a diverse and complicated-sounding boogie. An archetypal Stride piece is "Carolina Shout," composed and performed by James P. Johnson. Throughout this piece, a dynamic bass-line built on broken chords places massive emphasis on rhythm. Since there are a significant amount of bass notes played in a single measure, the separated beats are highlighted. Through the use of broken chords throughout jazz, rhythm is emphasized and separate bass players may become obsolete. More than rhythmic emphasis, broken chords also enhance the energy of the performance.

Broken chords in classical music may also have a distinct emphasis on the piece. This collective emphasis can enhance the noticeability of rhythmical values and energy. An example of this is in the fourth movement of Brahms Piano Quartet No. 3. In this finale, there is a musical dialogue between the melodic violin and rhythmic piano. The piano part is made of broken chords and a typically higher-ranged right hand. The broken chords and dynamic syncopation of the piano accents the violin's melody by creating a frantic tone, with heavy focus on specific rhythm and beat. The piano's lower register becomes almost percussive in its broken chords. In this instance of Romantic music, the piano enhances the listening experience by using broken chords to augment rhythm and tone.

Rhythm/Syncopation in Jazz and Romantic Era Music

In Black American music, rhythm is a vitally dynamic aspect of music production. Even without traditional drums or organized foot-tapping, the use of rhythm in all fields of jazz - including ragtime - is key. A primary rhythmical element found throughout all areas of jazz is syncopation. Syncopation occurs when notes are off-beat and the flow of the rhythm is interrupted. A syncopated piece is able to put emphasis on notes that are not the downbeat, or the note at the beginning of a measure. Instead, syncopated notes can be elsewhere in a given measure and they will be emphasized. A classic example of syncopation is the archetypal ragtime piece "Maple Leaf Rag," composed by Scott Joplin in 1899. Throughout the piece, syncopation is used heavily, especially in the melodic right hand. The notes are played in an organized but off-beat manner, and this puts emphasis on the scalar flow of the melody. There is an increased level of syncopation as the piece moves from strain to strain. The off-beat nature of the transition puts more emphasis on the transitions themselves. Throughout many Black American traditional instrumental pieces, syncopation and other elements of rhythm are used to make the music more interesting and varied. It is common to have syncopation in more dynamic parts of the individual pieces.

Rhythmical elements in classical music provide the foundation for the entire composition. Changing rhythms can bring a change in mood, tone, message, or melody. A rhythmic shift can change the entire piece significantly. In the Romantic era, there are common notable tempo shifts and time signature changes. In coordination with the melody, there is often irregular phrasing, in which rhythm is contrasted suddenly. Towards the peak of the period, the composers began to forgo the traditional sets of rhythm and replace them with innovative styles and elements. Like jazz, syncopation played a major part in rhythmic values in the Romantic era. This can be observed in Tchaikovsky's Fourth Symphony, Op. 36. Specifically in the third movement, there is an apparent syncopation between the winds and percussion. Throughout the movement, the emphasis is placed on notes throughout the middle of specific measures, rather than at the downbeat. This is evident of syncopation, as the irregular emphasis causes interruptions in a smooth rhythmical flow. The syncopated rhythm builds in swells, and the irregular rhythm accents the dynamic changes. Throughout classical music, specifically in the Romantic era, syncopated rhythm was used to emphasize irregular musical elements.

Melody/Voicing in Jazz and Romantic Era Music

In traditional Black American music, melodies hold special importance throughout all fields of jazz study. Rooted in the foundations of slavery, the only means to make music for an extended period of time was exclusively with voice. A traditional means to create songs would be to have simple lyrics sung in a call-and-response system, in which a crowd would sing a response after an individual or group's line. This means that besides the response, there was only the melody, without any source of support or legitimate musical structure. Other instruments, which were added as time went on, became a simple accompaniment for the crux of the piece: the melody. As jazz music progressed, vocals altogether were often excluded from pieces, as in Duke Ellington and John Coltrane's performance of "In a Sentimental Mood," recorded in 1962. This piece, although without vocals, could be considered in some ways a song, because John Coltrane's saxophone is lyrical and emotional in his performance. Throughout the work, there is an introspective tone in which Coltrane broods on bleak but not depressing circumstances. The viscous piece builds in places, accented by the saxophone's flairs. This example of emphasis on jazz melody demonstrates how the voice of the melody, vocal or not, is the crux of all Black American musical production.

The Romantic musical era, similar to jazz, puts heavy emphasis on the melody and voice. As opposed to previous classical periods, the Romantic era began a set of new typical characteristics for melodies. Romantic melodies are more emotionally expressive, and as such, the voice usually is affected more by dynamics. Also, with greater dynamics, climaxes may be built much more than in traditional classical music. Even in slower songs, such as nocturnes, the climaxes are more significant in the Romantic era due to the wider range of dynamics and emotions commonly expressed. In Chopin's Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2, arguably his most famous piece, there is an obvious emphasis on the melody, while the left hand plays a simple set of arpeggios to accent the right handed melody. The use of trills throughout the piece represents the building of climaxes. The piece, without regard for traditional emotional transitions, easily changes tempo according to the dynamic being played. As the piece climaxes, the tempo also increases.  The dynamics also change suddenly, embodying the Romantic idea of a wider and more extreme emotional range, even in a traditionally brooding piece. Throughout Chopin's Nocturne and other Romantic works, the dynamics and emotional range of the melody are changed regularly and without regard for tempo.

History and Context of the Romantic Era of Classical Music

In the field of Western music, there have been several stages of musical progression up until modern times. The medieval period of music lasted from 500 CE until 1400, and then the Renaissance took place from 1400-1600. The post-Renaissance establishment of the Common Practice era of Western music can be split into three categories: Baroque (1600-1760), Classical (1730-1820), and Romantic (1815-1910). Then, music expands into several subcategories of modern classical music that persist to today. The final Common Practice subcategory emphasizes melodic expression and emotion. The Romantic era of music evolved out of the larger Romantic movement in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century.

Romanticism was a Renaissance-like development of culture and philosophy that followed the Age of Enlightenment. The Enlightenment occurred from the late seventeenth century through the eighteenth century. This period brought a wave of philosophers and authors advocating individual thought and the advancement of knowledge. The Romantic Era began towards the end of the Enlightenment, and it was more effective as an all-encompassing societal reformation. There were significant changes in the natural sciences, art, literature, history, and music. As opposed to other classical fields of study like realism, the romantic movement encouraged a heavy emphasis on the use of heavy emotion and hyperbole throughout all the artistic mediums. These romantic works in all artistic fields attempt to aesthetically embody the full range of dynamic human emotion, especially extreme emotions. Terror, awe, and surprise are examples of emotions prevalent throughout the Romantic Era. The period is most characterized by artists and academics consciously moving away from the orthodox traditions and practices perpetuated by respective academies. Melody, rhythm, and polyphony were all affected by the collective denouncing of musical institutions, and the more radical products allowed for further progress throughout the period. In the Romantic era, composers and other artists were emancipated from the constraints of academies and conservative artistic institutions.

Several other factors, besides the social context of the late eighteenth century, helped establish the Romantic era. This includes a development of musical technology, such as developments in brass instruments. These technologies allowed a wider range of music and different sounds to be produced. Also, the Romantic movement was catalyzed by the works of Ludwig van Beethoven. He was a key figure in the transition between the preceding Classical and following Romantic eras. As a transitional figure, his music reflects artistic cultures of both categories of the common practice period, and his later compositions are in more accordance with the musical norms of the time. Other popular Romantic composers are Franz Liszt, Richard Wagner, Chopin, and Schumann. Each of these composers had a unique style, but the foundation of their compositions was similar in their roots of Romanticism.

In a historical context, the Romantic period was an age of revolutions in political arenas as well as fields of study. The American and French Revolutions both took place in the early stages of the era, and the continued revolutions in all different aspects of art reflect the revolutionary time. The Romantic era can be considered a transition into early modern western society, and the music is reflective of such.

History and Context of Traditional American Jazz and Predicates

Jazz music itself is a modern – or Twentieth Century – mixture of several pre-existing musical styles. Jazz is an collective blend of music deriving from African folk and evolving styles in Black American Music. To define jazz appropriately, it must be noted that there is a long lineage of musical genres that predate jazz. These must be defined and analyzed before there is an effective context to define jazz musical style.

Jazz music was predicated on the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, in which hundreds of thousands of Africans were forcefully immigrated into the Americas and put into slave labor. These African slaves brought parts of their Sub-Saharan culture with them, especially music.

“A slave-ship captain named Theodore Canot described how the slaves kept their music alive even as they journeyed to unknown fates in the New World: ‘During afternoons of serene weather, men women, girls, and boys are allowed while on deck to unite in African melodies.’” (Haskins 3)

These traditional musical values in the call-and-response style, exclusively vocal for a long time, eventually became the foundation for jazz. As time progressed, the musical style also progressed, and slave music produced common hymns and gospels. These gospels and early blues, a lamenting style of slave work songs, carried through the emancipation of slaves and the Civil War in the 1860s. With the emancipation of the slaves came initiated black artistry and composition. The new artists, with a foundation of their personal heritage of slavery, were influenced by the European heritage of “minstrelsy” (Haskins 20). American minstrels grew tremendously in popularity throughout the nineteenth century, and famous composers like Stephen Foster incorporated what they knew about basic slave culture into their performances.

The combination of traditional slave music and the minstrelsy became a music known as Ragtime. The style was similar to that of minstrelsy with an added foundation of syncopated and upbeat rhythm. The most famous ragtime composer is Scott Joplin. The ideal ragtime song is “Maple Leaf Rag,” composed by Scott Joplin. The popularity of ragtime spread with the development of the Pianola, an invention which allowed the piano to play itself. Developing alongside ragtime was the blues. The blues, instead of using the syncopated rhythms of traditional African music as Ragtime did, combined the call-and-response style of lyrics and the minstrelsy popular at the time. 

Jazz was developed as different styles of ragtime and blues converged. However, creole and caribbean traditions also influenced the development of early jazz, which primarily took place in New Orleans, Louisiana. From there, jazz took off as a wildly popular expression of American individualism. The importance of voice and improvisation were more emphasized as jazz grew in pre-World War I America. After World War I, jazz found different hubs, such as New York during the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s. The most uniform style of traditional jazz was during the pre-World War II period. After World War II, jazz expanded into many different regions, especially in the “fusion” sub-genres.